quote:For Spring Creek National Fish Hatchery, data indicates that 98% of the estimated adult recoveries are either on route to or at the hatchery (Stephen Pastor, USFWS Vancouver, WA, unpublished data on hatchery strays, 2003).
2.7.4 Hatchery Production. Spring Creek NFH tule fall Chinook releases are some of the largest in magnitude relative to other production programs. Spring Creek releases, in most years, are made during three separate time periods. About 7.6 million smolts are released in mid-March, 4.2 million in mid-April and final release 3.3 million in May.
2.7.5 Disease. The Spring Creek tule fall Chinook salmon are a remarkably healthy stock with a very low incidence of the listed pathogens that plague other hatcheries (Fish Health Inspection Reports, 1982 to present, Lower Columbia River Fish Health Center). Adults return with no virus and low levels of two bacterial pathogens and there is no vertical transmission of disease to their offspring. Relative to this, the Spring Creek NFH fish have never suffered the decimating and uncontrollable losses caused by virus and have therefore never posed a viral threat to wild/native fish. Over the years, improvements to the handling of fish and to the recirculation system have significantly reduced disease. The juveniles still face challenges from pathogens external to the hatchery and common to the Columbia River; however, timely release of the juveniles reduces health risks. Spring Creek tule fall Chinook salmon are released directly into the Columbia River at the hatchery site and pass only Bonneville Dam on route to the ocean, so there is reduced potential for transmission of pathogens to other populations. In comparison, upriver programs are subjected to the high density impacts and stresses of collection for transport and/or diversion through multiple bypass systems where stress can trigger disease transmission. As a consequence, direct infection of other fish by Spring Creek fish is considered minimal.
Many of the disease concerns related to hatchery fish are based on old management styles that emphasized the release of large numbers of fish regardless of their health status. Since that time. The desire to improve fish health and prevent disease outbreaks has resulted in better husbandry. This includes decreases in rearing densities to reduce the crowding and stress that affects the resistance of salmonids to disease (Salonius and Iwama 1993; Schreck et al. 1993). Along with decreased densities and improved animal husbandry, advances in fish health care and adherence to federal and interagency fish health policies have significantly decreased the possibility of disease transmission from hatchery fish to wild/native fish. The policy requirements are especially appropriate to this facility where the recirculation system does not allow isolation of fish to prevent transmission of water-borne infections. In addition, the Lower Columbia River Fish Health Center is located nearby so fish health sampling, diagnosis, and treatment are readily available as fish health issues arise. Spring Creek NFH, as do all federal hatcheries in the Columbia River Basin, takes extensive measures to control disease and release healthy fish. Chapter 4 provides more detail on Fish Health practices.
While fish managers largely understand the epidemiology of pathogens at each hatchery, the same cannot be said of local wild fish populations. Recent studies suggest that the incidence of some pathogens in naturally spawning populations may be higher than in hatchery populations (Elliot and Pascho 1994). Renibacterium salmoninarum, the causative agent of bacterial kidney disease (BKD), appears, in general, to be significantly more prevalent among wild smolts of spring/summer Chinook salmon than hatchery smolts (Congleton et al. 1995; Elliot et al. 1997). Many biologists believe disease-related losses in naturally spawning populations often go undetected, and that the impact of disease is underestimated (Goede 1986; Steward and Bjornn 1990). In addition, although pathogens may cause significant post-release mortality in fish from some hatcheries, there is little evidence that hatchery origin fish routinely infect naturally produced salmon and steelhead in the Pacific Northwest (Enhancement Planning Team 1986; Foott et al. 2000; Steward and Bjornn 1990). Additional information on wild fish health has been collected since 1997 by the USFWS Fish Health Centers through the National Wild Fish Health Survey which is being conducted to better understand the health status of wild fish and to address the issues of disease interactions (
http://wildfishsurvey.fws.gov).
2.7.6 Competition. The potential impacts from competition are assumed to be greatest in the spawning and nursery areas at points of highest density (release areas) and diminish as hatchery smolts disperse (USFWS 1994). Salmon and steelhead smolts actively feed during their downstream migration (Becker 1973; Muir and Emmett 1988; Sager and Glova 1988). Competition in reservoirs could occur where food supplies are inadequate for migrating salmon and steelhead. However, the degree to which smolt performance and survival are affected by insufficient food supplies is unknown (Muir et al.1994). On the other hand, the available data are more consistent with the alternative hypothesis that hatchery-produced smolts are at a competitive disadvantage relative to naturally produced fish in tributaries and free-flowing mainstem sections (Steward and Bjornn 1990). Although limited information exists, available data reveal no significant relationship between level of crowding and condition of fish at mainstem dams. Consequently, survival of natural smolts during passage at mainstem dams does not appear to be affected directly by the number (or density) of hatchery smolts passing through the system at present population levels. While smolts may be delayed at mainstem dams, the general consensus is that smolts do not normally compete for space when swimming through the bypass facilities (Enhancement Planning Team 1986). The main factor causing mortality during bypass appears to be confinement and handling in the bypass facilities, not the number of fish being bypassed.
Juvenile salmon and steelhead, of both natural and hatchery origin, rear for varying lengths of time in the Columbia River estuary and pre-estuary before moving out to sea. The intensity and magnitude of competition in the area depends on location and duration of estuarine residence for the various species of fish. Research suggests, for some species, a negative correlation between size of fish and residence time in the estuary (Simenstad et al. 1982).
While competition may occur between natural and hatchery juvenile salmonids in or immediately upstream of the Columbia River estuary, few studies have been conducted to evaluate this potential problem (Dawley et al. 1986). The general conclusion is that competition may occur between natural and hatchery salmonid juveniles in the Columbia River estuary, particularly in years when ocean productivity is low. Competition may affect survival and growth of juveniles and thus affect subsequent abundance of returning adults. However, these are postulated effects that have not been quantified or well documented.
The release of hatchery smolts that are physiologically ready to migrate is expected to minimize competitive interactions as they should quickly migrate from the release site. Spring Creek tule fall Chinook are released into the Columbia River at the hatchery site and migrate quickly past Bonneville Dam en route to the ocean based on juvenile out-migrant trapping, reducing potential competitive interactions within the lower Columbia River basin. Because Spring Creek tule fall Chinook releases occur in the lower Columbia Basin system and earlier than the migration period for most wild listed stocks, there is reduced opportunity for competitive interactions.
2.7.7 Predation. The Service presented information that salmonid predators are generally thought to prey on fish approximately one-third or less than their size (USFWS 1994). Depending on species and population, hatchery smolts are often released at a size that is greater than their naturally-produced counterparts. For species that typically smolt as sub-yearlings (e.g. fall Chinook salmon), hatchery-origin smolts may displace younger year classes of naturally-produced fish from their territorial feeding areas. Both factors could lead to predation by hatchery fish on naturally produced fish, but these effects have not been extensively documented, nor are the effects consistent (Steward and Bjornn 1990).
In general, the extent to which salmon and steelhead smolts of hatchery origin prey on fry from naturally reproducing populations is not known, particularly in the Columbia River basin. The available information, while limited, is consistent with the hypothesis that predation by hatchery-origin fish is, most likely, not a major source of mortality to naturally reproducing populations, at least in freshwater environments of the Columbia River basin (Enhancement Planning Team 1986). However, virtually no information exists regarding the potential for such interactions in the marine environment.
Based on time of their release and the travel time taken by Spring Creek fish to exit the river, there is little potential for Spring Creek tule fall Chinook to prey on natural fry in the Columbia River. In addition, much of the spawning and early rearing areas for natural production are in the tributaries and upper basin areas.
Spring Creek tule fall Chinook releases may contribute to indirect predation effects on listed stocks by attracting predators (birds, fish, pinnipeds) and/or by providing a large forage base to sustain predator populations. Releasing large numbers of hatchery fish may lead to a shift in the density or behavior of non-salmonid predators, thus increasing predation on naturally reproducing populations. Conversely, large numbers of hatchery fish may mask or buffer the presence of naturally produced fish, thus providing sufficient distraction to allow natural juveniles to escape (Park 1993). Prey densities at which consumption rates are highest, such as northern pikeminnow in the tailraces of mainstem dams (Beamesderfer et al. 1996; Isaak and Bjornn 1996), have the greatest potential for adversely affecting the viability of naturally reproducing populations, similar to the effects of mixed fisheries on hatchery and wild fish. However, hatchery fish may be substantially more susceptible to predation than naturally produced fish, particularly at the juvenile and smolt stages (Piggins and Mills 1985; Olla et al. 1993).
Predation by birds and marine mammals (e.g., seals and sea lions) may also be significant source of mortality to juvenile salmonid fishes, but functional relationships between the abundance of smolts and rates of predation have not been demonstrated. Nevertheless, shorebirds, marine fish, and marine mammals (NMFS 1997) can be significant predators of hatchery fish immediately below dams and in estuaries (Bayer 1986; Ruggerone 1986; Beamish et al. 1992; Park 1993; Collis et al. 2001). Unfortunately, the degree to which adding large numbers of hatchery smolts affects predation on naturally produced fish in the Columbia River estuary and marine environments is unknown, although many of the caveats associated with predation by northern pike minnow in freshwater are true also for marine predators in saltwater.
2.7.9 Migration Corridor/Ocean. The Columbia River hatchery production ceiling, called for in the Proposed Recovery Plan for Snake River Salmon of approximately 197.4 million fish (1994 release levels), has been incorporated by NOAA-Fisheries into their recent hatchery biological opinions to address potential mainstem corridor and ocean effects, as well as other potential ecological effects from hatchery fish. Although hatchery releases occur throughout the year, approximately 80 percent occur from April to June (NMFS 1999a) and Columbia River out-migration occurs primarily from April through August. Spring Creek releases one half of its production in March before the beginning of the normal hatchery and natural stock out-migration season. The total number of hatchery fish released in the Columbia River basin has declined by about 26 percent since 1994 (NMFS 1999c), reducing potential ecological interactions throughout the basin.
Ocean rearing conditions are dynamic. Consequently, fish culture programs might cause density-dependent effects during years of low ocean productivity, especially in near shore areas affected by upwelling (Chapman and Witty 1993). To date, research has not demonstrated that hatchery and naturally produced salmonids compete directly in the ocean, or that the survival and return rates of naturally produced and hatchery origin fish are inversely related to the number of hatchery origin smolts entering the ocean (Enhancement Planning Team 1986). If competition occurs, it most likely occurs in near shore areas when (a) upwelling is suppressed due to warm ocean temperatures and/or (b) when the abundance or concentration of smolts entering the ocean is relatively high. However, we are only beginning to understand the food-chain effects of cyclic, warm ocean conditions in the northern Pacific Ocean and associated impacts on salmon survival and productivity (Beamish 1995; Mantua et al. 1997). Consequently, the potential for competition effects in the ocean cannot be discounted (Emlen et al. 1990).
Alternatively, the hatchery program may be filling an ecological niche in the freshwater and marine ecosystem. A large number of species are known to utilize juvenile and adult salmon as a nutrient and food base (Groot and Margolis 1991, McNeil and Himsworth 1980). Pacific salmon carcasses are also important for nutrient input back to freshwater streams (Cederholm et al. 1999). Reductions and extinctions of wild populations of salmon could reduce overall ecosystem productivity. Because of this, hatchery production has the potential for playing an important role in population dynamics of predator-prey relationships and community ecology. The Service speculates that these relationships may be particularly important (as either ecological risks or benefits) in years of low productivity and shifting climatic cycles.
CHAPTER 3. HATCHERY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
3.1 Hatchery Goals, Objectives, and Tasks 2
The following Hatchery Management Goals were adapted from the Mitchell Act, Endangered Species Act (ESA) Biological Opinions, United States v. Oregon agreements, and the Integrated Hatchery Operations Team ¨C Operation Plans for Anadromous Fish Production Facilities in the Columbia River Basin Volume III ¨C Washington, Annual Report for 1995 (IHOT 1996). Additionally, a Hatchery and Genetic Management Plan for Spring Creek NFH (USFWS 2003b) was submitted to NOAA-Fisheries in December 2002. After co-manager and public review, a final HGMP will be completed in 2004. Within the HGMP, specific Performance Standards and Indicators (PSI¡¯s) that have been established will be adhered to by the Service during operation of Spring Creek NFH.
Goal 1: Conserve Columbia River fall Chinook salmon in the area upstream of Bonneville Dam as defined in the Mitchell Act of 1937.
Objective 1: Successfully maintain a brood stock of tule fall Chinook salmon at Spring Creek National Fish Hatchery without the need for out-of-basin egg or fish transfers to the hatchery (achieve a minimum 0.05% smolt to adult return back to the hatchery).
Task 1: Implement measures to efficiently manage and conserve water use at the hatchery.
Task 2: Implement measures for brood stock management to maintain integrity and genetic diversity of the Spring Creek tule hatchery stock, as identified in the Hatchery and Genetic Management Plan (HGMP).
Task 3: Implement management practices for incubation strategies and procedures at the hatchery.
Task 4: Implement management practices for hatchery rearing strategies making sure the biological filter system is operating as efficiently as possible.
Task 5: Implement management practices for release strategies at the hatchery.
Task 6: Maximize survival at all life stages using disease control and prevention techniques. Prevent introduction, spread or amplification of fish pathogens.
Task 7: Maintain genetic integrity for possible reintroduction of stock back into its native White Salmon River pending Condit Dam removal.
Objective 2: Conduct monitoring and evaluation to ensure Goal 1 is achieved.
Task 1: Conduct hatchery evaluation studies to investigate alternative strategies to improve water management, brood stock management, incubation, rearing, and release strategies. Support research on physiology, diet, fish health, and genetics (unfunded), and other Columbia River projects.
Task 2: Collect information to monitor life history characteristics such as length, age *** composition, and run timing.
Task 3: Hold Hatchery Evaluation Team (HET) meetings each winter and summer to review progress.
Task 4: Complete a Station Development Plan (Engineering) to identify facility needs in addressing the needs of hatchery conservation goals (unfunded).
Task 5: Monitor health and disease status of fish, following the Service Fish Health Policy and Pacific Northwest Fish Health Committee and Integrated Hatchery Operation Team (IHOT) guidelines.
Related Spring Creek HGMP Performance Standards and Indicators to Goal 1, Objectives and Tasks:
Benefit PSI 1. - Program contributes to mitigation requirements.
Benefit PSI 4. - Communicate effectively with other salmon producers and co-managers.
Benefit PSI 7. - Fish collected for brood stock are taken throughout the return and in proportions approximating the timing and age distribution of the population from which brood stock is taken.
Risk PSI 2. - Maximize survival at all life stages using disease control and disease prevention techniques. Prevent introduction, spread, or amplification of fish pathogens.
Risk PSI 3. - Conduct environmental monitoring to ensure that hatchery operations comply with water quality standards and to assist in managing fish health.
Goal 2: Assure that hatchery operations support Columbia River Fish Management Plan (United States v. Oregon) and US/Canada Pacific Salmon Treaty production and harvest objectives.
Objective 1: Collect sufficient brood stock to produce 15.1 million smolts for on-station release into the Columbia River.
Task 1: Collect 7000 brood stock, of which 4000 are females.
Task 2: Work with co-managers to manage for fisheries, food, stream enrichment, outplanting, or rendering purposes.
Objective 2: Contribute to a meaningful harvest for sport, tribal and commercial fisheries both in the ocean and in-river (achieve a 10-year average of ¡Ý 0.5% smolt to adult survival, harvest plus escapement).
Task 1: Work with states, tribes, and Foreign governments to establish meaningful fisheries (through United States v. Oregon, U.S./Canada, Pacific Fishery Management Council forums).
Task 2: Index mark juvenile hatchery fish prior to release to facilitate harvest and related conservation and assessment efforts for hatchery, wild, and Endangered Species Act (ESA) listed stocks.
Objective 3: Meet tribal trust responsibilities.
Task 1: Follow pertinent Laws, Agreements, Policies and Executive Orders on Consultation and Coordination with Native American Tribal Governments.
Task 2: As requested, present Spring Creek NFH production information and issues at Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission meetings.
Task 3: Meet with individual treaty tribes (Umatilla, Nez Perce, Yakama, and Warm Springs) as requested.
Objective 4: Communicate and coordinate effectively with co-managers in the Columbia River Basin.
Task 1: Participate in United States v. Oregon Production Advisory Committee (PAC) and Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) meetings.
Task 2: Develop technical reports for PAC and TAC.
Task 3: Discuss management issues for Spring Creek NFH at annual coordination meeting each February between the Service, WDFW, NOAA, Fisheries, COE and the Columbia River treaty tribes.
Objective 5: Conduct monitoring and evaluation to ensure goal #2 is achieved.
Task 1: Coded-Wire-Tag representative release groups annually.
Task 2: Produce an annual report on stock assessment and contribution to fisheries.
Task 3: Compare and evaluate survival, life history, fisheries contribution, and fish health parameters between brood years in order to improve fish culture techniques.
Related Spring Creek HGMP Performance Standard and Indicator to Goal 2, Objectives and Tasks:
Benefit PSI 2. - Implement spawning and rearing practices to achieve production goal.
Benefit PSI 3. - Maintain stock integrity and genetic diversity of each unique stock through proper management of genetic resources.
Benefit PSI 4. - Communicate effectively with other salmon producers and co-managers.
Benefit PSI 5. - Program contributes to fulfilling tribal trust responsibility, mandates and treaty rights, as described in United States v. Oregon.
Risk PSI 5. - Release groups are sufficiently marked in a manner consistent with information needs and protocols to enable determination of impacts to natural and hatchery-origin fish in fisheries.
Goal 3: Minimize impacts to listed (ESA) and other native species, their habitat, and the environment.
Objective 1: Minimize harmful interactions with other fish and wildlife populations.
Task 1: Implement the Spring Creek NFH Hatchery and Genetic Management Plan (USFWS 2003b).
Task 2: Release juvenile fish (smolts) ready to migrate downstream.
Task 3: Return any ESA listed or wild fish into the river that enter hatchery ladder during brood stock collection.
Objective 2: Conduct monitoring and evaluation to ensure Goal 3 is achieved.
Task 1: Conduct environmental monitoring to ensure that hatchery operations comply with water quality standards and to assist in managing fish health.
Task 2: Investigate ways to improve the efficiency of biological filters to improve water quality, fish health and smolt quality.
Task 3: Develop a study plan to assess physiological status of juveniles prior to release (unfunded) and determine downstream migration rates.
Task 4: Assess straying rates and recovery location of fish from Spring Creek NFH.
Task 5: Monitor health and disease status of fish, following the Service Fish Health Policy, continue Geodes index reading for each release group.
Related Spring Creek HGMP Performance Standard and Indicator to Goal 3, Objectives and Tasks:
Risk PSI 1. ¨C Minimize interactions with other fish populations through proper rearing and release strategies.
Risk PSI 3. ¨C Conduct environmental monitoring to ensure that hatchery operations comply with water quality standards and to assist in managing fish health.
Risk PSI 4. ¨C Hatchery program addresses ESA responsibility.
Goal 4: Develop outreach to enhance public understanding, participation and support of Service and Spring Creek NFH programs.
Objective 1: Increase public awareness of Spring Creek NFH.
Task 1:Coordinate with other federal, state, and local information/public affairs offices to incorporate information about Spring Creek NFH.
Task 2: Facilitate interagency cooperation with existing and new programs in the Columbia River Gorge.
Task 3:Coordinate with Service, NOAA-Fisheries and COE-Fisheries to host special events, such as National Fishing and Boating Week and National Wildlife Refuge Week activities, and open houses at the hatchery.
Task 4: Interact with Service, NOAA and COE Fisheries outreach coordinators and actively seek to integrate Lower Columbia River fisheries outreach activities with the Regional and National Outreach Strategies.
Task 5: Increase public use of the hatchery facilities by inviting special interest groups to tour the hatchery.
Objective 2: Provide information and education about Service programs and Spring Creek NFH to internal and external audiences.
Task 1: Develop new cooperative agreements and partnerships with public, private and home school groups. Expand relationships with Friends Group, Friends of Northwest Hatcheries.
Task 2: Maintain website for the Spring Creek NFH to inform cyber-visitors of the Spring Creek NFH programs, history and general information.
Task 3: Staff the hatchery on weekends with Information and Education assistance during peak adult fish returns (September) to give tours, answer questions, and disseminate general information.
Task 4: Develop a strong working relationship with the local media (newspaper, radio, and other Columbia River Gorge publications) and provide regular news releases and articles regarding agency issues and station activities.
Objective 3: Develop forums for public participation (or input) into Spring Creek NFH issues.
Task 1: Regularly participate in White Salmon River Watershed Technical Advisory and Council meetings.
Task 2: Hold an annual meeting with local conservation groups each spring to discuss Spring Creek NFH¡¯s program and other issues of concern.
Objective 4: Conduct monitoring and evaluation to ensure Goal 4 is achieved.
Task 1: Evaluate use and/or exposure of program materials and exhibits as they help support goals of the Information and Education program.
Task 2: Distribute teacher evaluations of our education programs to assure education goals are met.
